Anti-Christian Bias Claims as a Racial Dog Whistle: Study

Author: University of Washington
Published: 15 Apr 2024 - Updated: 19 Sep 2026
Publication Details: Peer-Reviewed | Informative

Table of Contents:
Synopsis - Definition - Overview - FAQs - Insights, Updates - Related Content

Synopsis

This research, published in the peer-reviewed journal Psychological Science by University of Washington psychologists Clara Wilkins and Rosemary (Marah) Al-Kire with colleagues, looks at whether political claims of anti-Christian bias work as a racial dog whistle that signals loyalty to white Americans. Both white and Black Christians saw a politician worried about anti-Christian bias as more concerned about anti-white bias, more willing to fight for white people, and less offensive than a politician who spoke openly about anti-white bias. Black Christians also judged that politician as less likely to stand up for Black communities. Reading about anti-Christian bias led white Christians, but not Black Christians, to perceive more bias against white people. The work matters for voters, faith communities, and anyone trying to make sense of political messaging, including people with disabilities and older adults whose own concerns can be pushed aside by coded appeals, because it shows how talk of religious freedom can carry a racial meaning that listeners pick up on even when race is never mentioned.*

At a Glance

• 1 - The researchers did not test intent, focusing instead on what listeners actually hear.
• 2 - Slave Bibles printed for enslaved people left out liberation passages such as the Book of Exodus and stressed submission to authority.
• 3 - Most earlier studies of racial dog whistles looked at coded language about Blackness, with little attention paid to language that signals whiteness.
• 4 - Christian nationalism is most strongly endorsed by white evangelical Christians and has been linked to negative attitudes toward immigrants, refugees, and Black Americans.

Topic Definition

Racial Dog Whistle

A racial dog whistle is political language that sends a message about race without ever naming it. The words sound neutral or even admirable to the general public, but a target audience hears a second meaning that signals sympathy, loyalty, or hostility toward a particular racial group. Classic examples include terms like "welfare queens" or "states' rights," which carried racial connotations while giving the speaker room to deny any racial intent. Dog whistles work because they draw on associations people already hold, such as the cultural link between whiteness and Christianity in the United States, so the speaker can make a racial appeal that would be unacceptable if stated directly. Whether or not the speaker intends it, the effect is measured by what listeners actually take away from the message.

Overview

In a speech to a group of religious broadcasters in February, Donald Trump promised to create a task force to counter "anti-Christian bias," which he said would investigate the "discrimination, harassment and persecution against Christians in America." It's not the first time Trump has claimed that Christians are being persecuted, and he's not alone. As more politicians repeat these statements, researchers from the University of Washington investigated whether anti-Christian bias claims can also be used as a racial dog whistle to signal allyship with white Christian Americans.

A dog whistle is coded language used in political messaging to garner support from a particular group by indirectly communicating about race. For example, the phrase "welfare queens'' was popularized during Ronald Reagan's first presidential campaign to refer to individuals perceived as abusing the welfare system. The term was disproportionately associated with Black, single mothers, allowing politicians to disparage a marginalized group without directly mentioning race.

The UW study, published online March 20 in Psychological Science, showed that white and Black Christians perceived a politician concerned about anti-Christian bias as caring more about anti-white bias, being more willing to fight for white people and as less offensive than one concerned about anti-white bias. Black, but not white, Christians saw a politician distressed by anti-Christian bias as less likely to fight for Black people.

The researchers also found that reading about anti-Christian bias led white Christians - but not Black Christians - to perceive more anti-white bias. Together, these results suggest that talking about anti-Christian bias can provide a more palatable way for politicians to signal allegiance to white people.

To learn more, UW News spoke with corresponding authors Clara Wilkins, a UW associate professor of psychology and Rosemary (Marah) Al-Kire, a UW postdoctoral research fellow of psychology, about their work.

What Interested You About This Area of Research?

Marah Al-Kire: Most previous research on racial dog whistles has focused on dog whistles that communicate Blackness, but there's not much that looks at indirect language that can communicate whiteness. One line of Clara's research focuses on how and why high-status, majority groups claim discrimination, like men who claim bias against men and white people who report anti-white bias. Especially in the current political climate, we were interested in whether these bias claims, such as talking about anti-Christian bias, were inadvertently communicating something about race.

For example, we saw Donald Trump use Christian symbolism during the George Floyd protests when he had a photo op holding a Bible, which was a signal of Christian nationalism. We know that Christian nationalism - the false belief that the United States is and should be a Christian nation - is highly associated with racialized attitudes, even though the items we use to measure it make no direct mention of race. The connection between white and Christian in the United States is pervasive. If I was talking about anti-Christian bias, it also triggers perceptions of anti-white bias because people make an automatic connection between "white" and "Christian."

Clara Wilkins: If you look at which group most strongly endorses the ideas of Christian nationalism, it's white evangelical Christians. It's not a thing among all Christians; it's a subset. For example, Marah and co-author Michael Pasek have research showing that people who endorse Christian nationalism have negative attitudes toward immigrants and refugees, and our colleague Sam Perry finds a similar association with anti-Black attitudes. So clearly, there is a connection between race and religion that hasn't been explicitly studied.

One of the things that causes Christians to see themselves as victimized is perceived social change. We know that perceptions of bias against Christians have been increasing over time, and so have politicians' claims of the need to protect religious freedom. There seems to be an implicit racialization of religion, where politicians are using claims of religious persecution as racial dog whistles.

Why Does Anti-Christian Bias Work Particularly Well as a Racial Dog Whistle?

Marah Al-Kire: One reason is how perceptions of Americanness are tied to race. Past research has shown that white people are seen as more American. But we're also currently finding evidence to suggest that "Christian" is operating in the same way that "white" is. If you think about the Christian symbols that you see, Jesus is portrayed as white even though realistically, that's not what Jesus would look like. At a cultural level and with historical iconography, there is a tight connection between whiteness and Christianity. In the United States, there is also a deeply rooted history of white supremacy within Christianity.

Clara Wilkins: There are many examples of historic racialization of Christianity in the US. For example, slave Bibles - Bibles created specifically for enslaved populations - excluded portions that talked about liberation, books like Exodus, and instead focused on submission to authority. Many Confederate generals were ministers. Christianity has played a central role in the rationalization of racial subjugation in the American context.

One thing we write about in the paper is the fact that the United States was founded on the premise of religious freedom. Protecting a core value sounds great, right? It's a lot more acceptable than a politician saying that they're really looking out for white people, but our research suggests that is what people hear.

The paper features several quotes from Donald Trump. Can you explain how politicians like Trump use anti-Christian bias claims to appeal to their base? What can voters watch for as we approach the 2024 elections?

Marah Al-Kire: People should pause and think about what politicians are saying, like bias against Christians and Christian-related issues, and what people are actually hearing. We couldn't demonstrate intent in the paper. We were just focusing on what people hear. Someone like former vice president Mike Pence, who is obviously very religious, is probably actually trying to talk about anti-Christian bias. But inadvertently, especially among white voters, he's signaling a commitment to them as well. Our study shows that when you describe anti-Christian bias, white people perceive anti-white bias. Black people do not do that. But Black people still recognize that it's a dog whistle. So even though Black people aren't saying that anti-Christian bias means anti-white bias, they still assume that politicians are using it strategically. From a politician's standpoint, if you're trying to appeal to communities of color - and a lot of Black communities are highly Christian - you're still inadvertently signaling a lower commitment to Black communities.

Clara Wilkins: We've been working on this research for years, and the original draft of the paper didn't open with Trump quotes. This is a pattern of increasing claims of anti-Christian bias that has been going on for a while and Trump just jumped on the bandwagon. That said, our research doesn't speak to whether Trump understands these patterns, but I imagine one thing he does know is that white evangelical Christians are among his most fervent supporters, which I think is likely due to appointing three conservative Christians to the Supreme Court and overturning Roe v. Wade. Trump says he's not racist, but he uses a lot of racist language. In our society, being called racist is basically one of the worst things you could be called, right? So how does a politician create a racial appeal without saying something like, "White people need to band together?" That's the extreme. Far right politicians can do that, but mainstream candidates can't. Our paper shows that a politician can communicate racial concern by claiming anti-Christian bias.

Co-authors

Other co-authors were Chad Miller, UW doctoral student of psychology; Samuel Perry of the University of Oklahoma; and Michael Pasek of the University of Illinois Chicago.

Frequently Asked Questions

NOTE: Researched FAQs by Disabled World (DW)

How can I tell if a political statement might be a dog whistle?

Look at whether the language repeatedly appears alongside racial topics, whether it is mainly used with one group of voters, and whether it lets the speaker deny a meaning that many listeners clearly hear. Checking how different communities react to the same phrase is often the most revealing test.

Are racial dog whistles always used on purpose?

No. A speaker may sincerely mean exactly what the words say, yet listeners can still hear a racial message because of associations they already hold. Researchers often study the effect on the audience rather than the intent of the speaker.

What is the difference between a dog whistle and an explicit racial appeal?

An explicit appeal names a racial group directly, while a dog whistle uses neutral sounding words that carry a racial meaning. Dog whistles let mainstream politicians reach a target group without facing the social cost of openly racial language.

What are some other well known examples of coded political language in the United States?

Phrases such as states rights, law and order, and inner city have been studied by political scientists as terms that often carried racial meaning. Their impact depends heavily on the time period, the speaker, and the audience.

Does the United States protect people from religious discrimination?

Yes. The First Amendment protects the free exercise of religion, and federal laws such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 bar religious discrimination in employment. Many states have added their own protections as well.

What kind of research does the journal Psychological Science publish?

Psychological Science is the flagship journal of the Association for Psychological Science. It publishes peer reviewed empirical studies across all areas of psychology, including social psychology research on prejudice, identity, and political behavior.

How can coded political messaging affect people with disabilities?

Coded appeals can steer public attention and resources toward some groups while quietly sidelining others. Disabled people, especially those who also belong to racial or religious minorities, may find their needs left out of policy debates framed around narrow group loyalties.

How can faith communities keep their beliefs from being used as political signals?

Congregations can speak openly about the full diversity of their members, welcome people of every race and ability, and question leaders who invoke faith mainly to rally one group. Clear public statements about inclusion make coded messages harder to attach to a faith tradition.

Hyperreligiosity: When Faith Becomes a Clinical Sign: Hyperreligiosity explained: how neurological disease, psychosis and rigid belief turn devotion into measurable harm, disability and preventable death.

Insights, Analysis, and Developments

Editorial Note: The study, released online on March 20, 2024, and co-authored by Chad Miller of the University of Washington, Samuel Perry of the University of Oklahoma, and Michael Pasek of the University of Illinois Chicago, adds evidence to a pattern many people have long suspected but few have measured: in the United States, "Christian" and "white" are tied together in the public mind, shaped by centuries of imagery that shows Jesus as white and by research showing white people are seen as more American. That link lets a politician appeal to one racial group while seeming only to defend a core national value, and it works whether or not the speaker means it that way, as the researchers note with a sincere religious figure such as Mike Pence. With promises of a federal task force on anti-Christian bias now part of national politics, the findings give voters a useful habit: listen not just to what a candidate says, but to what different communities are likely to hear. For disabled people and other groups who rely on fair and inclusive public policy, learning to spot coded appeals is part of holding leaders accountable to everyone they serve.*

Attribution/Source(s): This peer reviewed publication was selected for publishing by the editors of Disabled World (DW) due to its relevance to the disability community. Originally authored by University of Washington and published on 15 Apr 2024, this content may have been edited for style, clarity, or brevity.

* Editorial additions by Ian C. Langtree.